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Vitamin A

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Introduction
How Vitamin A Makes Our Eyes Moist, Our Skin Smooth, and Our Immune System Strong
How Vitamin A Promotes Healthy Vision and Healthy Sleep
Other Amazing Things Vitamin A Does
Vitamin A in Foods
Getting Vitamin A From Plant Foods Is Hard!
Things That Boost Our Vitamin A
Vegans, Low-Fat Dieters, and Children
Vitamin A Supplements
Vitamin A Toxicity
Wrapping Up
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)

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Introduction
Thiamin and Glucose Intolerance
Severe Thiamin Deficiency
Thiamin Deficiency Starves the Nervous System of Glucose
Other Cool Things Thiamin Does
Getting Thiamin From Food
Thiamin Antagonists From Foods and Microbes
Thiamin Antagonists In the Environment
Other Causes of Thiamin Deficiency
Are Thiamin Supplements Safe?
Wrapping Up
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

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Introduction
Amazing Things Riboflavin Does
Riboflavin Deficiency
How Much Riboflavin Do We Need?
Getting Riboflavin From Food
Other Causes of Deficiency
Riboflavin Supplements
Wrapping Up
Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

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Introduction
Why Niacin Is Important
Niacin Deficiency
How to Get Niacin From Food
Protein
Coffee, Grains, and Seeds
The Five Tiers
Making It Simple
Other Causes of Deficiency
Niacin Supplements
Making Niacin Safe
Wrapping Up
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

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Introduction
Pantothenic Acid Deficiency
What B5 Does For Us
Other Cool Things B5 Does
The Great Pantothenate Mystery
B5 in Foods
Watch Out for These If You Don't Want to Be Deficient!
B5 Supplements
Wrapping Up
Vitamin B6

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Introduction
What Vitamin B6 Does For Us
Vitamin B6 Deficiency
Vitamin B6 in Foods
Other Reasons for Deficiency
Vitamin B6 Toxicity
Vitamin B6 Supplements
Wrapping Up
Vitamin B7 (Biotin)

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Introduction
What Biotin Does for Us
Getting Biotin From Food
How Much Do We Need?
Pregnancy!
Other Causes of Deficiency
Biotin Supplements
Wrapping Up
Vitamin B9 (Folate)

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Introduction
How Folate Supports Our Health Through Methylation
Other Cool Things Folate Does
Folate Deficiency
How Much Folate Do We Need?
How to Get Folate From Food
Synthetic Folic Acid
Dietary Patterns
Genetic Variations in Folate Metabolism
Other Causes of Folate Deficiency
Is Folate Toxic?
Folate Supplements
Wrapping Up
Vitamin B12

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Introduction
B12's One Role Outside of Methylation
B12 and Irreversible Nervous System Degeneration
B12 and Folate Interactions
Vitamin B12 in Vegan Foods
Vitamin B12, Meal Timing, and Meal Frequency
Vitamin B12 in Specific Foods
Pernicious Anemia, Gastritis, Vegetarianism, and Veganism
Other Causes of B12 Deficiency
Vitamin B12 Supplements
Wrapping Up
Choline

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Introduction
Choline and Methylation
Interactions With B12 and Folate
Choline and MTHFR
Fatty Liver, Fat Digestion, Strength, Brain Power, Rest and Digest
How Much Choline Do We Need?
Choline in Foods
Betaine in Foods
Vegans, Autoimmune Paleo, Egg Allergies, and Low-Cholesterol Diets
Men and Women, and Genetics
Choline Toxicity and TMAO
Choline Supplements
Wrapping Up
Vitamin C

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Introduction
Why Vitamin C is Famous
Vitamin C and Scurvy
Vitamin C as an Antioxidant
Vitamin C and Immune Function
Peeing Too Much, Gray Hair, Brain Power, Sex Drive, and More
Adrenal Hormones, Coloring the Skin, Eyes, and Hair
Vitamin C Interactions with B Vitamins, Iron, and Copper
How Much Vitamin C Do We Need?
Vitamin C, Storage, and Cooking
Vitamin C in Foods: The Five Tiers
Foods With Smaller Amounts
Vitamin C in Animal Foods
Limitations to Using Animal Foods
Vitamin C and Dietary Patterns
Other Things That Hurt Vitamin C Status
Is Vitamin C Toxic?
Vitamin C Supplements
Wrapping Up
Introducing Vitamin D, Calcium, and Phosphorus

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Introduction
Bones, Teeth, Heart Disease, and Kidney Stones
Balancing Calcium and Phosphorus
The "Introverted" Functions of the Trio
Phosphorus is Distributed in Foods More Widely Than Calcium
Severe Deficiencies: Rickets, Osteomalacia, and Tetany
Osteopenia and Osteoporosis
Calcium and Vitamin D Make Bones Stronger, Phosphorus Makes Them Weaker
Excess of All Three Cause Soft Tissue Calcification
Toxicities of Calcium and Vitamin D Have Opposite Effects on Bone
Healthy Levels of Calcium Protect Against Kidney Stones
Wrapping Up
Vitamin D in Sunshine, Foods, and Supplements

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Introduction
Vitamin D From Sunshine
Naked and Lying Down
Noon on a Summer Day
Balancing the Noon and Morning Sunshine
Vitamin D in Foods: How Much Do We Need?
Vitamin D is Found in the Fat
D2 vs D3
Vitamin D in Foods: The Three Tiers
Fortified Foods, Blood, and Other Foods
Potential Downsides of Vitamin D-Rich Foods
Vitamin D Supplements
Calcium and Phosphorus in Foods and Supplements

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Introduction
How Much Calcium Do We Need?
Calcium Absorption From Different Foods
Meeting the Calcium Requirement With Food
Calcium in Mineral Water
Calcium Supplements: Safety Concerns
Calcium Supplements: Which Forms Are Best?
How Much Phosphorus Do We Need?
It's Hard to Become Deficient in Phosphorus
What do Fruitarians, Refined Flour-Heads, and Keto-Carnivores Have in Common?
Starvation, Refeeding, and Hungry Bones
Hidden Phosphorus Additives in Processed Foods
Wrapping It Up
Vitamin E

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Introduction
Vitamin E Prevents Damage to Cellular Membranes and Other Cellular Components
Vitamin E Deficiency
Vitamin E Is Fat-Soluble
Vitamin E is a "Chain-Breaking Antioxidant"
PUFAs are Uniquely Vulnerable to Oxidation
Should We Use the Vitamin E Amount or the Ratio to PUFA?
Vitamin E Cannot Completely Protect PUFA From Oxidation
Dietary Targets for PUFA and Vitamin E
Other Causes of Vitamin E Deficiency
Vitamin E Supplements
Supplement Recommendations
Switching from High-PUFA to Low-PUFA Oils
High-Dose Vitamin E Supplements
Wrapping Up
Vitamin K

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Introduction
Vitamin K and Blood Clotting
Calcium Metabolism, Hormonal Health, Exercise Performance, and Cancer
The Many Forms of Vitamin K
How Much Vitamin K Do We Need?
Vitamin K in Foods
Carnivore, Vegan, Moms, Kidney Disease, Warfarin, Statins, Osteoporosis Drugs
Other Things That Hurt Vitamin K Status
Vitamin K Supplements
Balancing the Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Essential Fatty Acids Part 1: Omega-6

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Introduction
Classical Essential Fatty Acid Deficiency
EFA Deficiency Required Refined Diets High in Sugar
Arachidonic Acid Is What's Missing
Arachidonic Acid is the Animal Form of EFAs
Biotin and B6 Help Cure Deficiency
Arachidonic Acid is Needed for Cellular Decision-Making
Stomach Health, Immune Health, Balancing Inflammation, Confidence, Anxiety, and Exploration
The Dangers of Anti-Inflammatories
How Much Do We Need?
Poor Conversion or Activation is Far More Common Than Absolute Deficiency
Vegan Arachidonic Acid Supplements?
Who Should Worry?
Anti-Inflammatories and Poor Activation
Is There a Toxic Dose?
Wrapping Up
Essential Fatty Acids Part 2: Omega-3

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Introduction
Antagonism Between Omega-6 and Omega-3
A Six-Year-Old Girl Shot in the Stomach: The Ultimate Plot Twist
ALA, EPA, and DHA
How Omega-6 and Omega-3 Can Each Each Cause the Other to Become Deficient
The "Anti-Inflammatory" Effects of EPA
Inflammation Resolution is an Active Process Requiring Arachidonic Acid and DHA
Other Benefits of DHA
DHA and the Nervous System
Omega-3s, Psychiatric Disorders, and Heart Disease
Wrapping Up
Copper

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Introduction
What Copper Does for Us
Copper Deficiency
How Much Copper Do We Need?
Copper in Food
Variation in Food Copper
Other Causes of Deficiency
Copper Toxicity
Copper, Birth Control, and HRT
Copper Supplements
Wrapping Up
Iodine

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Introduction
Why We Need Iodine
Iodine Deficiency
Fibrocystic Breast Disease and Antimicrobial Effects
How Much Iodine Do We Need?
Iodine In Food: Very Tricky
Iodine Toxicity
Rules of Thumb to Hit the Sweet Spot
Iodine Antagonists
"Healthy" Habits That Hurt Your Iodine Status
Iodine Supplements
Wrapping Up
Iron

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Introduction
The Two Faces of Iron
Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Hypothyroidism
Iron Overload and Hemochromatosis
Iron: Cause of and Defense Against Oxidative Stress
Iron and Blood Loss
Blood Loss in the Intestines, and From Exercise
The Genetics of Iron Overload
Phlebotomy and Blood Donation
Sex, Race, and the Prevalence of Hemochromatosis Genetics
How Much Iron Do We Need?
Heme vs. Non-Heme Iron
What Impacts Iron Absorption?
Assumptions Behind the RDA
The RDA
Why the Average Woman Doesn't Need to Meet the RDA
The RDA for Infants, Children, and Adolescents
Iron in Foods: The Five Tiers
Enriched Grains
Foods That Aren't Rich in Iron
Why Kale and Broccoli Didn't Make the Cut
What an Iron-Rich Diet Looks Like
Dietary Patterns That Can Cause Iron Deficiency
Iron Supplements
Iron and Inflammation
Why You Shouldn't Manage Hemochromatosis or Iron Overload With Diet
Wrapping Up
Magnesium

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Introduction
Magnesium is Needed to Make Proteins and Use Energy
Magnesium and Proteins
Magnesium and Energy
Magnesium, Calcium, and Other Electrolytes
Magnesium and Fatigue
Magnesium and Glutamate Sensitivity, Asthma, and Pain
Magnesium and Hearing Loss, PMS, Pregnancy, Migraines, Diabetes, and More
How Much Magnesium Do We Need?
Magnesium in Foods: The Five Tiers
Dietary Patterns: Carnivore, Autoimmune Paleo, Keto, High-Fat, Junk Food
Other Causes of Magnesium Deficiency
Should You Supplement With Magnesium?
Potential Harms of Magnesium Supplements: Loose Stools and Magnesium Toxicity
Which Magnesium Supplements Should You Take?
Wrapping Up
Manganese

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Introduction
Manganese Protects Mitochondria, Cleans Up Ammonia and Glutamate, and Makes Glucose, Collagen, and Cholesterol
Manganese Deficiency: Poor Bone Health, Skin Rash, Low Cholesterol
Manganese, Osteoporosis, and PMS
How Much Manganese Do We Need?
Absorption of Manganese from Whole Grains, Nuts, Seeds, and Legumes
Manganese in Foods: The Five Tiers
Foods That Don't Make the Cut
Manganese, Plants, Spices, and Carnivore Diets
Manganese Toxicity: Parkinson's Symptoms
Manganese Supplements
Wrapping Up
Molybdenum

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Introduction
The Four Roles of Molybdenum
The Difference Between Sulfite and Sulfate
Sources of Sulfite: Animal Protein, Food Additives, Onions, Garlic, Cruciferous Veggies, Supplements, Medications, Pregnancy, and Gut Bacteria
The Many Dangers of Sulfite: Allergy-Like Reactions, Glutamate Toxicity, Seizures, Psychiatric Disorders, Chronic Pain, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Deficiencies of B1, B6, and Neurotransmitters, Morni
The One Case of Clinical Molybdenum Deficiency
Genetic Disorders in Molybdenum Metabolism
Poor Molybdenum Status: Insomnia, Mood, Motivation, Stress-Coping, Chronic Pain, Fatigue, Morning Sickness, and More
How Much Molybdenum Do We Need?
Is the RDA for Molybdenum Enough?
Molybdenum in Foods: The Five Tiers
Foods That Don't Make the Cut
The "Lost Foods" Where the Exact Data is Missing But We Know the Ranges
Variations According to Soil Content and Availability Within Foods
Dietary Patterns: Carnivore, Paleo, Keto, Low-Carb, and High-Protein
Sulfate in Supplements Can Interfere With Molybdenum Absorption
Is Molybdenum Toxic?
Molybdenum's Potential Interaction With Copper
Supplementing With Molybdenum
Wrapping Up
Introducing Salt and Potassium

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Introduction
Salt and Potassium Are Hydrating
Salt and Potassium Are Electrolytes
Salt, Potassium, Blood Pressure, and Swelling
Providing the Energy for Transport
Digestion and Nutrient Absorption
Nutrient Retention and Transport Within the Body
Salt and Potassium in the Nervous System
The Role of Salt and Potassium in Insulin Release
Potassium Activates Enzymes
Osteoporosis and Kidney Stones
Wrapping Up
How Much Salt and Potassium Do We Need?

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Introduction
Why Do We Crave Salt, but Not Potassium?
Ancestral Intakes of Salt and Potassium
Is It the Ratio That’s Important?
The New Salt and Potassium Guidelines
The Potassium AI
The Sodium AI
Are the Salt and Potassium AIs Adequate?
What They Needed to Set a CDRR
Why There Is No Potassium CDRR
The Sodium CDRR
Where Did the Ratio Go?
How to Balance Salt and Potassium
Wrapping Up
Salt and Potassium in Foods and Supplements

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Introduction
Potassium in Foods: General Principles
Potassium in Foods: The Five Tiers
Dietary Patterns
Potassium Supplements
Salt in Natural Foods
Salt in Processed Foods
When Salt Hides From Taste Buds
Most Salt Intake Comes From Processed Foods
Don’t Avoid Salting Your Food
Limit Processed Foods and Salt to Taste
Dangerous Changes to Blood Levels
What to Do About It
Wrapping Up
Selenium

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Introduction
The Strange Story Behind Selenium Studies
The Puzzle Continues in Humans
Selenium Deficiency is a Laboratory of Virulence
Selenium Protects Against Oxidative Stress
Selenium Is Needed for Thyroid Health
Other Roles of Selenium
Selenium and the Soil
Signs of Selenium Deficiency and Toxicity
Selenium Deficiency
Selenium Toxicity
The Importance of Measuring Blood Levels
How Much Selenium Do We Need?
Selenium in Foods: General Principles
Selenium in Foods: The Five Tiers
Getting Enough Selenium Through Diet
Selenium Is Still About the Soil
Should You Supplement With Selenium?
What Form of Selenium is Best?
It’s Not Just About Selenium
Wrapping Up
Zinc

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Introduction
The Discovery of Zinc Deficiency
Zinc Deficiency Today
The Many Roles of Zinc
How Much Zinc Do We Need?
The Threat of Phytate
Animal Protein and Sour Acids Enhance Zinc Absorption
Zinc in Foods: General Principles
Zinc in Foods: The Five Tiers
What Happened in That First Case of Zinc Deficiency?
Dietary Patterns
It’s Not All About Diet
Zinc Toxicity
Zinc Supplements
Killing a Cold With Zinc
Wrapping Up

Ancestral Intakes of Salt and Potassium