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Vitamin A
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- How Vitamin A Makes Our Eyes Moist, Our Skin Smooth, and Our Immune System Strong
- How Vitamin A Promotes Healthy Vision and Healthy Sleep
- Other Amazing Things Vitamin A Does
- Vitamin A in Foods
- Getting Vitamin A From Plant Foods Is Hard!
- Things That Boost Our Vitamin A
- Vegans, Low-Fat Dieters, and Children
- Vitamin A Supplements
- Vitamin A Toxicity
- Wrapping Up
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Thiamin and Glucose Intolerance
- Severe Thiamin Deficiency
- Thiamin Deficiency Starves the Nervous System of Glucose
- Other Cool Things Thiamin Does
- Getting Thiamin From Food
- Thiamin Antagonists From Foods and Microbes
- Thiamin Antagonists In the Environment
- Other Causes of Thiamin Deficiency
- Are Thiamin Supplements Safe?
- Wrapping Up
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Amazing Things Riboflavin Does
- Riboflavin Deficiency
- How Much Riboflavin Do We Need?
- Getting Riboflavin From Food
- Other Causes of Deficiency
- Riboflavin Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Why Niacin Is Important
- Niacin Deficiency
- How to Get Niacin From Food
- Protein
- Coffee, Grains, and Seeds
- The Five Tiers
- Making It Simple
- Other Causes of Deficiency
- Niacin Supplements
- Making Niacin Safe
- Wrapping Up
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)
- PDF (For Printing)
- PDF (With Links)
- Introduction
- Pantothenic Acid Deficiency
- What B5 Does For Us
- Other Cool Things B5 Does
- The Great Pantothenate Mystery
- B5 in Foods
- Watch Out for These If You Don't Want to Be Deficient!
- B5 Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Vitamin B6
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- What Vitamin B6 Does For Us
- Vitamin B6 Deficiency
- Vitamin B6 in Foods
- Other Reasons for Deficiency
- Vitamin B6 Toxicity
- Vitamin B6 Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- What Biotin Does for Us
- Getting Biotin From Food
- How Much Do We Need?
- Pregnancy!
- Other Causes of Deficiency
- Biotin Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Vitamin B9 (Folate)
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- How Folate Supports Our Health Through Methylation
- Other Cool Things Folate Does
- Folate Deficiency
- How Much Folate Do We Need?
- How to Get Folate From Food
- Synthetic Folic Acid
- Dietary Patterns
- Genetic Variations in Folate Metabolism
- Other Causes of Folate Deficiency
- Is Folate Toxic?
- Folate Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Vitamin B12
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- B12's One Role Outside of Methylation
- B12 and Irreversible Nervous System Degeneration
- B12 and Folate Interactions
- Vitamin B12 in Vegan Foods
- Vitamin B12, Meal Timing, and Meal Frequency
- Vitamin B12 in Specific Foods
- Pernicious Anemia, Gastritis, Vegetarianism, and Veganism
- Other Causes of B12 Deficiency
- Vitamin B12 Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Choline
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Choline and Methylation
- Interactions With B12 and Folate
- Choline and MTHFR
- Fatty Liver, Fat Digestion, Strength, Brain Power, Rest and Digest
- How Much Choline Do We Need?
- Choline in Foods
- Betaine in Foods
- Vegans, Autoimmune Paleo, Egg Allergies, and Low-Cholesterol Diets
- Men and Women, and Genetics
- Choline Toxicity and TMAO
- Choline Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Vitamin C
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Why Vitamin C is Famous
- Vitamin C and Scurvy
- Vitamin C as an Antioxidant
- Vitamin C and Immune Function
- Peeing Too Much, Gray Hair, Brain Power, Sex Drive, and More
- Adrenal Hormones, Coloring the Skin, Eyes, and Hair
- Vitamin C Interactions with B Vitamins, Iron, and Copper
- How Much Vitamin C Do We Need?
- Vitamin C, Storage, and Cooking
- Vitamin C in Foods: The Five Tiers
- Foods With Smaller Amounts
- Vitamin C in Animal Foods
- Limitations to Using Animal Foods
- Vitamin C and Dietary Patterns
- Other Things That Hurt Vitamin C Status
- Is Vitamin C Toxic?
- Vitamin C Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Introducing Vitamin D, Calcium, and Phosphorus
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Bones, Teeth, Heart Disease, and Kidney Stones
- Balancing Calcium and Phosphorus
- The "Introverted" Functions of the Trio
- Phosphorus is Distributed in Foods More Widely Than Calcium
- Severe Deficiencies: Rickets, Osteomalacia, and Tetany
- Osteopenia and Osteoporosis
- Calcium and Vitamin D Make Bones Stronger, Phosphorus Makes Them Weaker
- Excess of All Three Cause Soft Tissue Calcification
- Toxicities of Calcium and Vitamin D Have Opposite Effects on Bone
- Healthy Levels of Calcium Protect Against Kidney Stones
- Wrapping Up
Vitamin D in Sunshine, Foods, and Supplements
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Vitamin D From Sunshine
- Naked and Lying Down
- Noon on a Summer Day
- Balancing the Noon and Morning Sunshine
- Vitamin D in Foods: How Much Do We Need?
- Vitamin D is Found in the Fat
- D2 vs D3
- Vitamin D in Foods: The Three Tiers
- Fortified Foods, Blood, and Other Foods
- Potential Downsides of Vitamin D-Rich Foods
- Vitamin D Supplements
Calcium and Phosphorus in Foods and Supplements
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- How Much Calcium Do We Need?
- Calcium Absorption From Different Foods
- Meeting the Calcium Requirement With Food
- Calcium in Mineral Water
- Calcium Supplements: Safety Concerns
- Calcium Supplements: Which Forms Are Best?
- How Much Phosphorus Do We Need?
- It's Hard to Become Deficient in Phosphorus
- What do Fruitarians, Refined Flour-Heads, and Keto-Carnivores Have in Common?
- Starvation, Refeeding, and Hungry Bones
- Hidden Phosphorus Additives in Processed Foods
- Wrapping It Up
Vitamin E
- PDF (For Printing)
- PDF (With Links)
- Introduction
- Vitamin E Prevents Damage to Cellular Membranes and Other Cellular Components
- Vitamin E Deficiency
- Vitamin E Is Fat-Soluble
- Vitamin E is a "Chain-Breaking Antioxidant"
- PUFAs are Uniquely Vulnerable to Oxidation
- Should We Use the Vitamin E Amount or the Ratio to PUFA?
- Vitamin E Cannot Completely Protect PUFA From Oxidation
- Dietary Targets for PUFA and Vitamin E
- Other Causes of Vitamin E Deficiency
- Vitamin E Supplements
- Supplement Recommendations
- Switching from High-PUFA to Low-PUFA Oils
- High-Dose Vitamin E Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Vitamin K
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Vitamin K and Blood Clotting
- Calcium Metabolism, Hormonal Health, Exercise Performance, and Cancer
- The Many Forms of Vitamin K
- How Much Vitamin K Do We Need?
- Vitamin K in Foods
- Carnivore, Vegan, Moms, Kidney Disease, Warfarin, Statins, Osteoporosis Drugs
- Other Things That Hurt Vitamin K Status
- Vitamin K Supplements
- Balancing the Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Essential Fatty Acids Part 1: Omega-6
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Classical Essential Fatty Acid Deficiency
- EFA Deficiency Required Refined Diets High in Sugar
- Arachidonic Acid Is What's Missing
- Arachidonic Acid is the Animal Form of EFAs
- Biotin and B6 Help Cure Deficiency
- Arachidonic Acid is Needed for Cellular Decision-Making
- Stomach Health, Immune Health, Balancing Inflammation, Confidence, Anxiety, and Exploration
- The Dangers of Anti-Inflammatories
- How Much Do We Need?
- Poor Conversion or Activation is Far More Common Than Absolute Deficiency
- Vegan Arachidonic Acid Supplements?
- Who Should Worry?
- Anti-Inflammatories and Poor Activation
- Is There a Toxic Dose?
- Wrapping Up
Essential Fatty Acids Part 2: Omega-3
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Antagonism Between Omega-6 and Omega-3
- A Six-Year-Old Girl Shot in the Stomach: The Ultimate Plot Twist
- ALA, EPA, and DHA
- How Omega-6 and Omega-3 Can Each Each Cause the Other to Become Deficient
- The "Anti-Inflammatory" Effects of EPA
- Inflammation Resolution is an Active Process Requiring Arachidonic Acid and DHA
- Other Benefits of DHA
- DHA and the Nervous System
- Omega-3s, Psychiatric Disorders, and Heart Disease
- Wrapping Up
Copper
- PDF (For Printing)
- PDF (With Links)
- Introduction
- What Copper Does for Us
- Copper Deficiency
- How Much Copper Do We Need?
- Copper in Food
- Variation in Food Copper
- Other Causes of Deficiency
- Copper Toxicity
- Copper, Birth Control, and HRT
- Copper Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Iodine
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Why We Need Iodine
- Iodine Deficiency
- Fibrocystic Breast Disease and Antimicrobial Effects
- How Much Iodine Do We Need?
- Iodine In Food: Very Tricky
- Iodine Toxicity
- Rules of Thumb to Hit the Sweet Spot
- Iodine Antagonists
- "Healthy" Habits That Hurt Your Iodine Status
- Iodine Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Iron
- PDF (For Printing)
- PDF (With Links)
- Introduction
- The Two Faces of Iron
- Iron-Deficiency Anemia
- Hypothyroidism
- Iron Overload and Hemochromatosis
- Iron: Cause of and Defense Against Oxidative Stress
- Iron and Blood Loss
- Blood Loss in the Intestines, and From Exercise
- The Genetics of Iron Overload
- Phlebotomy and Blood Donation
- Sex, Race, and the Prevalence of Hemochromatosis Genetics
- How Much Iron Do We Need?
- Heme vs. Non-Heme Iron
- What Impacts Iron Absorption?
- Assumptions Behind the RDA
- The RDA
- Why the Average Woman Doesn't Need to Meet the RDA
- The RDA for Infants, Children, and Adolescents
- Iron in Foods: The Five Tiers
- Enriched Grains
- Foods That Aren't Rich in Iron
- Why Kale and Broccoli Didn't Make the Cut
- What an Iron-Rich Diet Looks Like
- Dietary Patterns That Can Cause Iron Deficiency
- Iron Supplements
- Iron and Inflammation
- Why You Shouldn't Manage Hemochromatosis or Iron Overload With Diet
- Wrapping Up
Magnesium
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Magnesium is Needed to Make Proteins and Use Energy
- Magnesium and Proteins
- Magnesium and Energy
- Magnesium, Calcium, and Other Electrolytes
- Magnesium and Fatigue
- Magnesium and Glutamate Sensitivity, Asthma, and Pain
- Magnesium and Hearing Loss, PMS, Pregnancy, Migraines, Diabetes, and More
- How Much Magnesium Do We Need?
- Magnesium in Foods: The Five Tiers
- Dietary Patterns: Carnivore, Autoimmune Paleo, Keto, High-Fat, Junk Food
- Other Causes of Magnesium Deficiency
- Should You Supplement With Magnesium?
- Potential Harms of Magnesium Supplements: Loose Stools and Magnesium Toxicity
- Which Magnesium Supplements Should You Take?
- Wrapping Up
Manganese
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Manganese Protects Mitochondria, Cleans Up Ammonia and Glutamate, and Makes Glucose, Collagen, and Cholesterol
- Manganese Deficiency: Poor Bone Health, Skin Rash, Low Cholesterol
- Manganese, Osteoporosis, and PMS
- How Much Manganese Do We Need?
- Absorption of Manganese from Whole Grains, Nuts, Seeds, and Legumes
- Manganese in Foods: The Five Tiers
- Foods That Don't Make the Cut
- Manganese, Plants, Spices, and Carnivore Diets
- Manganese Toxicity: Parkinson's Symptoms
- Manganese Supplements
- Wrapping Up
Molybdenum
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- The Four Roles of Molybdenum
- The Difference Between Sulfite and Sulfate
- Sources of Sulfite: Animal Protein, Food Additives, Onions, Garlic, Cruciferous Veggies, Supplements, Medications, Pregnancy, and Gut Bacteria
- The Many Dangers of Sulfite: Allergy-Like Reactions, Glutamate Toxicity, Seizures, Psychiatric Disorders, Chronic Pain, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Deficiencies of B1, B6, and Neurotransmitters, Morni
- The One Case of Clinical Molybdenum Deficiency
- Genetic Disorders in Molybdenum Metabolism
- Poor Molybdenum Status: Insomnia, Mood, Motivation, Stress-Coping, Chronic Pain, Fatigue, Morning Sickness, and More
- How Much Molybdenum Do We Need?
- Is the RDA for Molybdenum Enough?
- Molybdenum in Foods: The Five Tiers
- Foods That Don't Make the Cut
- The "Lost Foods" Where the Exact Data is Missing But We Know the Ranges
- Variations According to Soil Content and Availability Within Foods
- Dietary Patterns: Carnivore, Paleo, Keto, Low-Carb, and High-Protein
- Sulfate in Supplements Can Interfere With Molybdenum Absorption
- Is Molybdenum Toxic?
- Molybdenum's Potential Interaction With Copper
- Supplementing With Molybdenum
- Wrapping Up
Introducing Salt and Potassium
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Salt and Potassium Are Hydrating
- Salt and Potassium Are Electrolytes
- Salt, Potassium, Blood Pressure, and Swelling
- Providing the Energy for Transport
- Digestion and Nutrient Absorption
- Nutrient Retention and Transport Within the Body
- Salt and Potassium in the Nervous System
- The Role of Salt and Potassium in Insulin Release
- Potassium Activates Enzymes
- Osteoporosis and Kidney Stones
- Wrapping Up
How Much Salt and Potassium Do We Need?
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Why Do We Crave Salt, but Not Potassium?
- Ancestral Intakes of Salt and Potassium
- Is It the Ratio That’s Important?
- The New Salt and Potassium Guidelines
- The Potassium AI
- The Sodium AI
- Are the Salt and Potassium AIs Adequate?
- What They Needed to Set a CDRR
- Why There Is No Potassium CDRR
- The Sodium CDRR
- Where Did the Ratio Go?
- How to Balance Salt and Potassium
- Wrapping Up
Salt and Potassium in Foods and Supplements
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- Potassium in Foods: General Principles
- Potassium in Foods: The Five Tiers
- Dietary Patterns
- Potassium Supplements
- Salt in Natural Foods
- Salt in Processed Foods
- When Salt Hides From Taste Buds
- Most Salt Intake Comes From Processed Foods
- Don’t Avoid Salting Your Food
- Limit Processed Foods and Salt to Taste
- Dangerous Changes to Blood Levels
- What to Do About It
- Wrapping Up
Selenium
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- The Strange Story Behind Selenium Studies
- The Puzzle Continues in Humans
- Selenium Deficiency is a Laboratory of Virulence
- Selenium Protects Against Oxidative Stress
- Selenium Is Needed for Thyroid Health
- Other Roles of Selenium
- Selenium and the Soil
- Signs of Selenium Deficiency and Toxicity
- Selenium Deficiency
- Selenium Toxicity
- The Importance of Measuring Blood Levels
- How Much Selenium Do We Need?
- Selenium in Foods: General Principles
- Selenium in Foods: The Five Tiers
- Getting Enough Selenium Through Diet
- Selenium Is Still About the Soil
- Should You Supplement With Selenium?
- What Form of Selenium is Best?
- It’s Not Just About Selenium
- Wrapping Up
Zinc
- PDF (With Links)
- PDF (For Printing)
- Introduction
- The Discovery of Zinc Deficiency
- Zinc Deficiency Today
- The Many Roles of Zinc
- How Much Zinc Do We Need?
- The Threat of Phytate
- Animal Protein and Sour Acids Enhance Zinc Absorption
- Zinc in Foods: General Principles
- Zinc in Foods: The Five Tiers
- What Happened in That First Case of Zinc Deficiency?
- Dietary Patterns
- It’s Not All About Diet
- Zinc Toxicity
- Zinc Supplements
- Killing a Cold With Zinc
- Wrapping Up

The Potassium AI